An Introduction to Anarchism

Liz A. Highleyman

[This essay was written in 1988 by Liz and the (now defunct) Black Rose
anarchist group in Boston, MA]

What is Anarchism?

Anarchism is a political philosophy that is shrouded in misconception. This
is largely due to the fact that anarchism is a truly diverse way of
thinking, one which cannot be characterized by simple slogans or party
lines. In fact, if you ask 10 anarchists for their description of
anarchism, you are likely to get 10 different answers. Anarchism is more
than just a political philosophy; it is a way of life that encompasses
political, pragmatic and personal aspects.

The basic tenet of anarchism is that hierarchical authority -- be it state,
church, patriarchy or economic elite -- is not only unnecessary, but is
inherently detrimental to the maximization of human potential. Anarchists
generally believe that human beings are capable of managing their own
affairs on the basis of creativity, cooperation, and mutual respect. It is
believed that power is inherently corrupting, and that authorities are
inevitably more concerned with self-perpetuation and increasing their own
power than they are with doing what is best for their constituents.
Anarchists generally maintain that ethics are a personal matter, and should
be based upon concern for others and the wellbeing of society, rather than
upon laws imposed by a legal or religious authority (including revered laws
such as the U.S. Constitution). Most anarchist philosophies hold that
individuals are responsibile for their own behavior. Paternalistic
authorities foster a dehumanized mindset in which people expect elites to
make decisions for them and meet their needs, rather than thinking and
acting for themselves. When an authority arrogates to itself the right to
overrule the most fundamental personal moral decisions, such as what is
worth killing or dying for (as in military conscription or abortion), human
freedom is immeasurably diminished.

Anarchists acknowledge the connection between various forms of oppression
-- including sexism, racism, heterosexism, classism, and national
chauvinism -- and recognize the futility of focusing opposition on one form
of injustice while others continue to exist. Anarchists believe that the
means one uses to transform the world must be in accord with the ends that
one hopes to achieve. While anarchists disagree about strategies and
tactics, including the need for formal organizations and the use of violent
action to overthrow existing violent institutions, most agree that the
focus must not be on merely destroying the current order, but on fashioning
new, more humane and more rational alternatives to take its place.

Anarchist in History

Anarchists have played a part in revolutionary movements throughout
history. The French Revolution begun in 1789 had a strong proto-anarchist
element. Anarchists such as Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Peter Kropotkin,
Mikhail Bakunin, and Errico Malatesta played an essential part in the
development of revolutionary anarchist theory in the late nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries. Anarchists played a substantial role in the
revolutionary movements in Russia in 1905 and 1917, but were suppressed,
often ruthlessly, once the Bolsheviks had consolidated power. The Spanish
Revolution of 1936-1939 set the stage for the most widely known large-scale
manifestation of anarchist practice, in which anarcho-syndicalist
organizations (the FAI and CNT) successfully created workable,
non-hierarchical social and economic alternatives. In the United States, as
well as in Mexico and Latin America, there was an anarcho-syndicalist
influence within the trade union movement (for example the Industrial
Workers of the World). Prominent anarchists such as Emma Goldman and
Alexander Berkman participated in a variety of radical causes throughout
the early 1900s. There was a strong anarchist current in many of the social
change and alternative lifestyle movements of the 1960s (including parts of
the feminist movement, the gay liberation movement and the anti-war and
free speech movements), although in many cases these were overshadowed, if
not frankly repressed, by Marxist/Leninist/Maoist currents.

What Anarchism is Not

In an effort to clarify what anarchism is, it is useful to examine what
anarchism is not:

Communism: While many anarchists value communalism and collectivism,
anarchists reject the totalitarianism of the existing and recently fallen
communist, or more accurately Marxist-Leninist, states. The rift between
anarchists and Marxists developed as early as the 1870s as anarchists
perceived that the Marxists were perpetuating authoritarianism under a
different name. Marxist-Leninists groups have traditionally emphasized the
need for a vanguard party and the dictatorship of the proletariat, ideas
which are fundamentally opposed to the anarchist focus on
anti-authoritarianism and maximum individual freedom. Although orthodox
Marxism predicts that the state will "wither away" with time, we have
repeatedly seen in communist regimes a consolidation of state power and its
attendant repression and insistence on conformity.

Libertarianism: Libertarians are often confused with anarchists and do, in
fact, overlap in many respects. Both share an emphasis on individual
freedom and the desire to do away with the state. Many libertarians assign
primary importance to the individual and emphasize the principle of
enlightened self-interest. Many anarchists tend to focus more on mutual aid
and efforts to improve the circumstances of all members of the community.
Libertarianism is most often characterized by its economic viewpoint, which
places maximum value on unimpeded free market capitalism (some proponents
call themselves "anarcho-capitalists"), condones the use of force in the
defense of private property, opposes any governmental interference that
impedes efforts to maximize personal economic gain, and discounts values
that can not be measured in economic (typically monetary) terms. While
libertarians are anti-state, they often are not opposed to domination and
hierarchy in all its forms (there is often a strain of "survival of the
fittest" or "[economic] might makes right" in the libertarian philosophy),
and do not seek to radically alter societal power relations, especially
those based on economic power. Anarchists tend to have a more socialist
perspective, and favor doing away with any system in which the wealthy can
achieve disproportionate benefit while the less fortunate suffer undue
hardship. While anarchists value individual initiative, intelligence, and
creativity, it is recognized that those who possess such talents to a
lesser degree should still be treated with respect and justice.
Objectivists are an extremist type of libertarian. The Libertarian Party is
relatively moderate, and tends to focus on issues like electoral reform,
abolishing drug laws, and reducing governmental regulation. Many
libertarians are "minarchists" who believe that some form of government is
necessary but that it should be as minimal and unobtrusive as possible. The
question of what type of economic system would exist in an anarchist
society is an open one. Some anarchists believe that all forms of capital
and the market economy must be abolished, others favor a system that
promotes worker ownership and full participatory democracy within a market
economy, and still others believe that a variety of economic systems can
co-exist as long as they do not try to impose their systems and values on
each other.

"Liberalism": The prevailing political notions in this country equate
anarchism with leftism, and leftism with liberalism, but there are real
differences, both quantitative and qualitative. The idea of "the left" is
problematic in the 1990s, since much of modern politics tends to fall
outside the traditional left (liberal)/right (conservative) spectrum.
Although most anarchists do support "progressive" causes, anarchism does
not really have a place within the traditional political spectrum. Some
theorists have proposed a matrix that looks at degree of economic
authoritarianism and degree of social authoritarianism as two separate
axis; often those who favor economic liberty oppose social liberty and vice
versa. Much of modern progressive politics is based on "identity politics,"
the idea that one's primary concerns and alliances should be made on the
basis of race, gender and/or sexual orientation. Although many anarchists
are heavily invested in identity politics, a more comprehensive anarchist
philosophy looks forward to a time when people will not need to focus so
much on such categorizations. While liberals tend to advocate efforts to
reform the existing system (through such means as voting, lobbying, and
organized demonstrating), anarchists have a more radical view, and wish to
replace corrupt institutions entirely, and refashion a more humane society
by means of direct action, without reliance on any form of statist
intervention. While anarchists generally recognize the validity of
evolutionary as well as revolutionary change, they acknowledge that in
order to achieve a true reordering of society it is necessary to eradicate
hierarchical dominance relations wherever they exist; this has not
historically been a priority of liberals. Anarchists recognize that the
structures of power themsleves (be they capitalist or communist,
"democratic" or totalitarian) are the root of the problem, and as such,
cannot be the basis for a solution. Although some anarchists engage in
voting and organized protest in the belief that even small localized
improvements are worthwhile, they recognize that such activities are merely
interim steps, which one must go beyond in order to achieve real and
lasting change.

Nihilism: In contrast to the "anti-everything" credo of nihilism,
anarchists do not promote random violence, destruction, and "every man for
himself" lawlessness (although there are always a few with this philosophy
who call themselves "anarchists"). The common perception that anarchy is
equivalent to chaos is an unfortunate misconception arising from the
widespread belief, instilled by those in power, that authority is necessary
to maintain order. Anarchists believe that an efficient, organized, and
just society can be achieved on a non-hierarchical, decentralized, and
participatory basis.

Some Issues of Contention

Anarchists hold disparate views on many issues. One of the major areas of
disagreement is the question of the individual versus the community.
Individualist anarchists place primary importance on the freedom of the
individual, while anarcho-communists (and anarcho-syndicalists) focus on
the benefit of the social group at large, and mutualists lie somewhere in
between. In an ideal anarchist society, it is hoped that the needs of the
community as a whole can be met in a just manner without unduly impinging
on the free will and self-determination of the individuals within it.

Another debate within the anarchist movement concerns the issues of ecology
and technology. Classical anarchism displays similarities to the
traditional Marxian notions of the value of science and rationalism, and
the belief that technological progress generally benefits society. Many
modern anarchists believe that technology is inherently neither good nor
evil, but that it must be scrutinized and applied in a socially responsible
manner in order to best serve those who use it and are affected by it.
Other contemporary anarchists have an anti-technology, ecology-centered
perspective (the most extreme being primitivists and neo-Luddites), and
believe that an anarchist society can only be achieved by abandoning
technological advances and returning to a more primitive, localized and
ecologically harmonious way of life.

The issue of nationalism is also important. In general, anarchists advocate
the idea of internationalism (or rather, `no-nation'alism) and view
nationalism and patriotism as manifestations of the state's attempt to
increase its power by promoting artificial divisions among people. The
nation-state is a construct that serves the interests of various elites,
while the lower strata of the population remains in similar deplorable
circumstances throughout the world. Despite this, some anarchists maintain
that it is worthwhile to support certain national liberation struggles
(such as the efforts of the Palestinians in the middle east, Black
nationalists in the U.S., and oppressed indigenous peoples everywhere) in
the belief that smaller independent nations, albeit authoritarian, are
preferrable to exploitive, monolithic empires.

Currents within the Modern Anarchist Movement

Today's "anarchist movement" can more accurately be viewed as a collection
of different movements that have various political and philosophical
features in common. Building on, and sometimes diverging from, the
principles of classical anarchism, there are a variety of groups that are
enlarging the scope of contemporary anarchism and redefining traditional
notions of anarchy.

Anarcha-feminists meld the ideals of feminism and anarchism.
Anarcha-feminists focus on the liberation of women and the role of the
patriarchy more than classical anarchists, but not to the exclusion of
other forms of oppression (as some other types of feminism have done). Not
all women anarchists consider themselves anarcha-feminists, nor must an
anarcha-feminist be female -- the distinction is largely a matter of how
"woman-centered" one's values are and which aspects of domination are
emphasized. As is the case with many present day political movements, the
issue of gender separatism remains unresolved. On one hand, the
perpetuation within the anarchist movement of the same artificial gender
divisions that have been imposed by the hierarchical and patriarchal social
order may be inimical to the creation of true equality and to the breaking
down of barriers which anarchists hope to accomplish. On the other hand,
many women feel the need to maintain a women's space within a movement that
has traditionally been male-dominated, and believe that the validity of
women's concerns must be recognized and integrated into the anarchist
philosophy before unity can be achieved. Anarcha-feminists generally reject
statist solutions to women's problems (such as the censorship of
pornography in an attempt to reduce violence against women) in favor of
self-empowerment and direct action. Anarcha-feminist organizing can be
characterized by an emphasis on decentralization, participatory decision
making and action on a grassroots level. Anarcha-feminists generally
believe that the fulfillment of human potential can best be achieved by
moving beyond traditional gender roles and encouraging the development of
beneficial "masculine" and "feminine" qualities in all people, and equality
in all relationships.

Many modern anarchists concentrate on applying the ideals of free will and
self-determination to their personal lives. Within this tendency there is
an emphasis on the acceptance of a variety of options in the realm of
sexuality, family, and interpersonal relationships. Relationships should be
based on the free choice and consent of all individuals involved, and not
constrained by governmental, religious or societal restrictions. There are
many queer anarchists -- gay, lesbian, transgendered, and perhaps
especially bisexual; anarchism's promotion of the breakdown of traditional
categorization schemes seems particularly relevant to those with
non-traditional and/or marginalized sexual and gender identities. As with
feminists, some gay/lesbian/queer groups embrace anti-authoritarian
principles and direct action (for example, AIDS activists who organize
underground needle exchange programs and buyer's clubs for non-FDA-approved
drugs). Recognizing that traditional mandates such as marriage, the
patriarchal nuclear family, and enforced reproduction have been devised to
serve the interests of those in positions of power and authority,
anarchists emphasize the exploration of creative, voluntary relationship
alternatives such as nonmonogamy, extended families, and communal child
rearing, in addition to the more common traditional options. Anarchists
generally want to get government out of the business of approving personal
relationships, rather than extending such approval to same-sex
relationships. Anarchist queers also typically oppose efforts to increase
the gay presence in oppressive institutions such as the military.

In contrast to classical anarchism's adherence to atheism (largely in
response to the destructive influence of traditional authoritarian
religious institutions), many modern anarchists emphasize spirituality,
both the neo-pagan variety and liberation theology within traditional
religions. This reflects the belief that the maximization of human
potential necessitates a recognition of the spiritual and transcendental
aspects of human personality and culture as well as the rational. In the
realm of morality, such anarchists rely on personal responsibility and
concern for others rather than on the pronouncements of legal or moral
authorities. Spiritual anarchists generally emphasize the
interconnectedness of all life, and their beliefs commonly coincide with
those of ecologically oriented, nature-centered anarchists. Yet there
remains a substantial atheist element among anarchists who believe that the
idea of "sacredness" and a reliance on a "higher order" reinforce
traditional hierarchical notions and are inimical to the achievement of
full human freedom.

Anarchist ideals are often espoused by youth within the punk, alternative
art, rave, "deadhead" and radical student cultures. These young people
attempt to escape the injustice and alienation of life in the prevailing
consumer society by forming communities of resistance based on direct
action and means of self-reliance such as collective living, squatting,
info shops and the creation of economic alternatives such as food
cooperatives and independent, non-corporate music production and
distribution. While these young people accept many of the tenets of
classical anarchism (although commonly not under that label), they are
typically more concerned with applying the principles of
anti-authoritarianism and self-determination in a practical way to their
resistance activities and their daily lives. Some contemporary anarchists,
however, eschew such "lifestylism," and instead focus on building more
formalized groups and networks that can organize for broader social change.

Anarchists are involved with a wide array of publishing projects, from
informal one-time `zines to established newspapers and book publishers with
long histories. Anarchists are increasingly making use of the Internet and
other means of electronic communication. The Internet has often been
described as an example of anarchy in action, and it has indeed grown and
prospered with no central governmental authority. Electronic communications
provide a way to transcend national borders, and may minimize the
importance of cultural barriers such as race and gender as well. However,
there is a definite danger that increasing reliance on electronic
communication will reinforce economic barriers, creating a society of
information-age "haves" and "have nots." Anarchists have used electronic
communication to plan events, spread important news items, and exchange
information; there are mailing lists and Usenet newsgroups devoted to
anarchism and anti-authoritarianism, as well as more ambitious projects
such as the Spunk Press electronic archives. Clearly governments fear the
freedom of the net, and are increasing their efforts to crackdown on the
free flow of informations (in the guise of anti-obscenity and
anti-terrorism). Other anarchists oppose electronic communications, both
because they resist "mediated," non-face-to-face interaction and because of
the detrimental environmental effects of technology.

Conclusion

In summary, anarchism is a diverse, broadly defined philosphy that has been
adopted in one form or another by a wide range of individuals and groups,
many of whom do not explicitly label themselves as "anarchist." Anarchism
can have relevance to all facets of one's existence. In emphasizing
freedom, self-determination, personal responsibility, direct action, and
the creation of voluntary, cooperative alternatives, anarchism has the
vision and the flexibility to provide a viable way to transform one's own
life, while working for the radical and lasting social change that will
transform the world.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
[Image]Regresar a Introducci≤n al anarquismo
[Image]Regresar a Propuestas desde Nicaragua

[Image]Comentarios: